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Trafalgar, 1805

Trafalgar was fought on 21 October 1805 about 12 nautical miles west-north-west of Cape Trafalgar, between Cádiz and the Strait of Gibraltar. Vice-Admiral Lord Nelson's 27 British ships of the line met 33 French and Spanish ships under Vice-Admiral Pierre de Villeneuve, with Admiral Federico Gravina commanding the Spanish. Instead of fighting in a parallel line, Nelson attacked in two columns to cut the allied line and fight a close-range melee, trusting to British gunnery and seamanship. The allied ships, many with inexperienced crews, fought with great courage: Redoutable, Santísima Trinidad, San Juan Nepomuceno, Santa Ana and Príncipe de Asturias among them. Seventeen allied ships were captured and Achille blew up; no British ship was lost. Nelson was killed, as were the Spanish commodores Churruca and Alcalá Galiano and the French Rear-Admiral Magon, and Gravina died of his wounds in 1806. British losses were about 450 killed and 1,200 wounded; allied losses about 4,400 killed and 2,500 wounded, with thousands taken prisoner. A gale then wrecked most of the prizes. The battle ended Napoleon's hopes of contesting British command of the sea, but invasion of Britain had already been abandoned in August, and it did not decide the war on land. Ship positions follow the dispatches, ships' logs and the classic plans, but individual ships are placed schematically within that framework; times are ships' log times, which disagreed by up to half an hour.

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Turner, 'The Battle of Trafalgar' (1822-24)
Turner, 'The Battle of Trafalgar' (1822-24) — J. M. W. Turner - public domain (National Maritime Museum, Greenwich)

The battle, stage by stage

  1. 19-20 Oct

    The Combined fleet leaves Cádiz

    Ordered into the Mediterranean by Napoleon, and knowing that he was about to be superseded, Vice-Admiral Villeneuve took the Combined Fleet out of Cádiz on 19-20 October. In light, shifting winds it took two days to get 33 ships of the line clear of the harbour. Blackwood's inshore frigates (Euryalus is logged off the Castillo de San Sebastián on the 19th) signalled the sortie along a chain of ships to Nelson, who was about 16 leagues west-south-west of Cádiz. Nelson steered for the Straits to bar the way into the Mediterranean, then turned back north-west when the frigates reported the allies still close to the coast. On the evening of the 20th the Combined Fleet, in five squadrons, turned south-south-east for the Straits while the British stood off to the south-west to stay out of sight. Positions in this stage are schematic, taken from the bearings and distances quoted by James.

  2. 06:00-06:40

    Dawn: the fleets in sight

    At daylight, wrote Collingwood, 'when Cape Trafalgar bore E. by S. about Seven Leagues, the Enemy was discovered Six or Seven Miles to the Eastward, the Wind about West, and very light'. James puts the fleets 10-12 miles apart, with a heavy westerly swell. The Combined Fleet was heading south for the Straits in a loose line. At about 06:40 Nelson made the signals to form the order of sailing in two columns and to bear up, course east. The weather column was led by Victory and the lee column by Collingwood's Royal Sovereign. The British dawn position is from Collingwood's bearing; the allied line is placed 6-8 miles east, and individual ship positions in both fleets are schematic at this stage.

  3. 08:00-10:00

    Villeneuve wears: the crescent

    At about 08:00 Villeneuve, seeing that he could not reach the Straits without being caught, ordered the fleet to wear together and head north, so that Cádiz lay under his lee. The Mont-Blanc's log records the order at 09:00 - ships' clocks varied. In the light airs the manoeuvre took about an hour and a half. It reversed the order of sailing: Dumanoir's squadron became the van, and Gravina's Squadron of Observation fell in at the rear. The result was a ragged, bunched crescent some five miles long, 'convexing to Leeward' (Collingwood), with ships two and three deep in places. The British columns came on at under three knots. Allied positions here are schematic: the shape and length of the line are from the dispatches and James.

  4. 11:45

    'England expects that every man will do his duty'

    At about 11:45 Victory hoisted Nelson's signal, 'England expects that every man will do his duty' (Pasco, the signal lieutenant, suggested 'expects' for 'confides' because it was in the signal book), followed by 'Engage the enemy more closely'. About five minutes later Fougueux fired the first shots of the battle at Royal Sovereign. Collingwood's column was ahead and coming in at a slant, in a line of bearing, to cut off the rear twelve ships. Nelson's column was steering for the allied van to pin it before turning towards Villeneuve's flagship. The Euryalus log puts Cape Trafalgar SE by E, about 5 leagues at noon. Here the allied centre is about 12.5 nautical miles WNW of the cape.

  5. 12:00-12:20

    Royal Sovereign breaks the line

    'See how that noble fellow Collingwood carries his ship into action!' said Nelson. Royal Sovereign, newly coppered and well ahead of her column, endured some fifteen minutes of fire. She then passed under the stern of Álava's Santa Ana, raking her with a double-shotted broadside that is said to have disabled 14 guns and some 400 men, and ranged up on her lee side. For a time she fought Santa Ana, Fougueux, San Leandro, San Justo and Indomptable almost alone. Her consorts were still coming down one by one. Collingwood wrote that 'the Action began at Twelve o'Clock'; the Minotaur's log has it at 12:18. Engagement details are from the dispatches and James. Positions of individual ships are schematic.

  6. 12:45-13:15

    Victory breaks the line; Nelson is shot

    Victory came down under the fire of Bucentaure, Santísima Trinidad, Héros and Redoutable for some 40 minutes, unable to reply, losing about 50 men and her mizzen topmast. At about 12:45 she passed under Bucentaure's stern and fired a raking broadside through it at point-blank range. Captain Lucas had closed Redoutable up astern of his admiral, so Victory ran aboard her and the two ships locked together, drifting to leeward. Lucas had trained his crew for boarding and musketry. At about 13:15 a marksman in Redoutable's mizzen top shot Nelson through the shoulder and spine as he paced the quarterdeck with Hardy. He was carried below, saying 'they have done for me at last'. In the lee column Belleisle, Mars, Tonnant and Bellerophon were now in close action. Engagements are recorded; positions are schematic.

  7. 13:30-15:30

    The melee: Bucentaure and Santísima Trinidad taken

    Redoutable's boarders tried to take Victory's upper deck, but Téméraire came up on Redoutable's other side and raked her. Fougueux drifted onto Téméraire's starboard side, and the four ships lay locked together in a tier. Redoutable struck at about 13:55, with most of her crew killed or wounded; Fougueux was boarded and taken by Téméraire. Raked by Victory, Neptune, Leviathan and Conqueror, Bucentaure was dismasted. Villeneuve surrendered at about 14:15 to Conqueror's marine captain. The giant Santísima Trinidad was dismasted by Neptune, Conqueror and Africa and drifted, a hulk. In the south Santa Ana struck to Royal Sovereign at about 14:15, and Algésiras (Magon killed) to Tonnant. Belleisle lay dismasted until Polyphemus, Defiance and Swiftsure came up. Churruca was killed and San Juan Nepomuceno taken. Dumanoir's van was signalled back from 13:30; the Mont-Blanc log records his order to come about at 14:30. Positions are schematic.

  8. 16:30-17:30

    Nelson dies; Achille explodes

    Hardy came below twice to report. On the second visit he told Nelson that 14 or 15 ships had been taken. 'That is well,' said Nelson, 'but I bargained for twenty.' He died at about 16:30. Dumanoir's four ships passed to windward of the melee, firing as they went, then stood away to the south-west. Intrépide, which Infernet had turned back into the fight, struck to Orion at about 17:00, and Neptuno to Minotaur and Spartiate. Gravina, mortally wounded, signalled the survivors to rally on Príncipe de Asturias and led eleven ships away towards Cádiz. The burning Achille blew up at about 17:30 (the Mont-Blanc log says 18:00); boats from Prince, Pickle and Entreprenante pulled survivors from the water. Seventeen allied ships had struck, and the firing ceased at about 17:30. Positions are schematic.

  9. 22-28 Oct

    The storm: prizes lost, Cádiz

    Nelson had seen the swell building and ordered the fleet to anchor; Collingwood did not. A south-westerly gale came on around midday on the 22nd and lasted, on and off, until the 29th. The ships were 'all battered in Thirteen Fathom Water, off the Shoals of Trafalgar', wrote Collingwood, and 'few of the Ships had an Anchor to let go'. Prizes broke their tows and went ashore on the coast from Sancti Petri to Sanlúcar. On the 23rd Cosmao led five battered ships out of Cádiz and retook Santa Ana and Neptuno. Collingwood then scuttled or burned the prizes he could not hold, including Santísima Trinidad. Only four of the seventeen reached Gibraltar. Victory was towed into Gibraltar on the 28th with Nelson's body aboard in a cask of brandy. Wreck positions are approximate, placed from the place names in the sources.

Weapons

British fleet (Nelson, Collingwood)

Royal Navy ship's gun

Royal Navy ship's gun

Naval artillery · 1700s-1850s

At Trafalgar: British crews fired faster than their opponents; the two columns took the Combined fleet's broadsides head-on for some 20–40 minutes before they could reply, then broke the line and fired at point-blank range.

Smoothbore cast-iron guns mounted in rows along a warship's decks were the backbone of British sea power. Besides solid shot, crews could fire heated shot and incendiary carcasses to set targets on fire. In coastal campaigns, guns were often landed from ships to arm shore batteries.

Shot
Iron balls, commonly 6 to 32 lb by ship size
Mounting
Wooden truck carriage on a gun deck
Crew
Several men per gun
Photo: Moshi Anahory · CC BY-SA 2.0
Carronade

Carronade

Short-barrelled naval gun · 1770s–1850s

At Trafalgar: Victory's 68-pounder carronade raked Bucentaure through her stern, one of the opening blows of the battle.

A short, light, large-bore gun first made by the Carron Company in Scotland. It threw a heavy ball at close range with a small crew, earning the nickname 'the smasher'. As Victory passed astern of Bucentaure, her 68-pounder carronade, loaded with a round shot and a keg of 500 musket balls, raked the French flagship through her stern windows.

Shot
up to 68 lb (Victory's forecastle pair)
Range
short, a few hundred yards at most
Crew
far fewer men than a long gun of the same shot weight
Photo: Carronade · Rama · CC BY-SA 3.0 fr
Short Land Pattern musket ("Brown Bess")

Short Land Pattern musket ("Brown Bess")

Smoothbore flintlock musket · 1768–1790s pattern

At Trafalgar: Royal Marines fired from the decks and tops; Victory's upper deck was swept clear by Redoutable's marksmen until Téméraire came alongside.

The British infantryman's musket for most of the 18th century. Accuracy beyond about 100 yards was poor, so the tactics were volleys at close range followed by the bayonet, which the Brown Bess was built to carry.

Calibre
.75 (ball about .69)
Effective range
about 50–100 yd against a formed line
Rate of fire
3 rounds a minute, drilled
Photo: Tower (British Ordnance) · Public domain

Combined Franco-Spanish fleet (Villeneuve, Gravina)

Royal Navy ship's gun

Royal Navy ship's gun

Naval artillery · 1700s-1850s

At Trafalgar: French and Spanish gunners often aimed at masts and rigging to disable ships; Santísima Trinidad, the largest ship present, carried about 130 guns.

Smoothbore cast-iron guns mounted in rows along a warship's decks were the backbone of British sea power. Besides solid shot, crews could fire heated shot and incendiary carcasses to set targets on fire. In coastal campaigns, guns were often landed from ships to arm shore batteries.

Shot
Iron balls, commonly 6 to 32 lb by ship size
Mounting
Wooden truck carriage on a gun deck
Crew
Several men per gun
Photo: Moshi Anahory · CC BY-SA 2.0
French Model 1766 musket ("Charleville")

French Model 1766 musket ("Charleville")

Smoothbore flintlock musket · 1766–1777 pattern

At Trafalgar: Captain Lucas trained Redoutable's crew for musketry and boarding; a marksman in her mizzen top shot Nelson at about 13:15.

France shipped tens of thousands of these muskets to the Continental Army from 1777, quietly, before it entered the war. Lighter and slightly smaller-bored than the Brown Bess, it became the pattern for America's first national musket, the Springfield Model 1795.

Calibre
.69
Effective range
about 100 yd
Rate of fire
2–3 rounds a minute
Photo: Charleville Arsenal · Public domain

Paintings and photographs

Turner, 'The Battle of Trafalgar' (1822-24)
Turner, 'The Battle of Trafalgar' (1822-24) J. M. W. Turner's painting for George IV, combining several moments of the battle around Victory; criticised by naval officers for its liberties. National Maritime Museum, Greenwich. J. M. W. Turner - public domain (National Maritime Museum, Greenwich) · source
Stanfield, 'The Battle of Trafalgar' (1836)
Stanfield, 'The Battle of Trafalgar' (1836) Clarkson Stanfield's painting for the United Service Club, showing the battle at about 13:30 with Victory locked with Redoutable and Téméraire. William Clarkson Stanfield - public domain · source
Pocock, 'Beginning of the Action'
Pocock, 'Beginning of the Action' Nicholas Pocock's oil painting of the opening of the battle, composed from captains' sketches and plans. National Maritime Museum, Greenwich (BHC0548). Nicholas Pocock - public domain (Royal Museums Greenwich) · source
Devis, 'The Death of Nelson' (1807)
Devis, 'The Death of Nelson' (1807) Arthur William Devis, who sailed out to meet Victory on her return, painted Nelson dying in the cockpit with Hardy, Scott and Beatty around him. National Maritime Museum, Greenwich (BHC2894). Arthur William Devis - public domain (National Maritime Museum, Greenwich) · source
HMS Victory today
HMS Victory today HMS Victory in No. 2 Dry Dock, Portsmouth Historic Dockyard, where she is preserved as the flagship of the First Sea Lord. (Pinned here at the place she broke the line; she is in Portsmouth today.) UK Ministry of Defence - Open Government Licence · source

Free for everyone every year on its anniversary: October 21.

Accuracy score: 63/100 (moderate)

How the accuracy score works

Sources and method

Battle of Trafalgar, 21 October 1805. Times are ships' log times (local apparent time, about 25 minutes behind Greenwich), and different ships' clocks disagree by up to half an hour.

Position statements. Collingwood's dispatch of 22 October, published in the London Gazette Extraordinary, 6 November 1805 (also at The Trafalgar Way), gives the daylight position ('Cape Trafalgar bore E. by S. about Seven Leagues', enemy 'Six or Seven Miles to the Eastward', 'Wind about West, and very light'), the shape of the allied line ('a Crescent convexing to Leeward'), the start of the action at noon, and the aftermath ('Thirteen Fathom Water, off the Shoals of Trafalgar'). The master's log of HMS Euryalus (Frederick Ruckert), transcribed here, gives bearings and distances of Cape Trafalgar at noon on 21 October (SE by E, about 5 leagues), that afternoon (SE by S, 7-8 miles), and on 22 and 23 October. The captain's log of HMS Minotaur times the start of the action at 12:18 and the explosion at 17:55. William James, The Naval History of Great Britain, vol. IV (1837), text here, gives the British movements on 19-21 October, the wind (WNW, heavy westerly swell), the allied line order and its length ('a cable's length, or 200 yards' between ships, 'nearly five miles'). These positions are turned into decimal degrees by plane bearing and distance from the Cape Trafalgar lighthouse (36 10 59N 6 02 07W).

Plans. National Maritime Museum, Greenwich: 'Plan of the Commencement of the Battle of Trafalgar' (PAD4051) and 'Plan of the Relative Situation of the British and Combined Fleets, at the Close of the Battle' (PAD5716), both from Clarke and McArthur, Life of Admiral Lord Nelson (1809); Malby & Son, positions at noon (PAI5141); Nicholas Pocock's annotated plan of the end of the battle (PAD8782), which shows Redoutable, Téméraire and Fougueux locked by Victory, Leviathan with San Agustín, Dumanoir's four ships to windward and Gravina's group forming to leeward; and the Spanish plan by Sestelo and Millán (PAI6140). French side: Peter Hicks, 'A Harsh, But Necessary, Apprenticeship', Trafalgar Chronicle 17 (2007), with the log of Mont-Blanc (wear ordered 09:00, Dumanoir's signal to come about 14:30, Achille exploded 18:00, Cape Trafalgar 6-7 leagues at 17:30).

Narrative and times. Royal Museums Greenwich, The Battle of Trafalgar (11:45 signal, 11:50 first shots, Nelson shot 13:15, died 16:30, firing ceased 17:30, casualties); Encyclopaedia Britannica; the Nelson Society, The Trafalgar Roll (after Pocock and Mackenzie). Weather: Dennis Wheeler, 'El tiempo durante la batalla de Trafalgar', Investigaciones Geográficas 14 (1995), a peer-reviewed reconstruction from the ships' logs: light winds, the gale arriving about midday on 22 October and lasting until the 29th. Fougueux's wreck off Camposoto/Sancti Petri: Rodríguez Mariscal et al., IKUWA V (Andalusian Institute of Historical Heritage). The ship list and fates were checked against Wikipedia's order of battle, used only as a cross-check.

What is estimated. The allied line is drawn from its recorded length, order, crescent shape and the noon bearings. Every individual ship position, the dawn and 10:00 formations, the British approach tracks and the drift during the afternoon are schematic, built to agree with the recorded engagements. The 19-20 October positions are schematic. Wreck sites in the aftermath are placed from place names, not surveyed positions. Paintings are public domain via Wikimedia Commons.

Where the positions come from

Approximate locations

Further reading