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Mexican–American War · 1846 Free to explore

Palo Alto, 8 May 1846

Palo Alto, fought on 8 May 1846 on the coastal prairie north of present-day Brownsville, Texas, was the first major battle of the Mexican–American War. Gen. Mariano Arista's Army of the North, about 3,200 to 3,800 men, blocked the road as Brig. Gen. Zachary Taylor's Army of Occupation, about 2,300, marched from its depot at Point Isabel to relieve besieged Fort Texas. Instead of the infantry clash Arista hoped for, the battle became a four-hour artillery duel that the U.S. 'flying artillery' and two 18-pounders won decisively against Mexican guns with weak powder. Torrejón's lancers were turned back from the U.S. right, a prairie fire halted the fighting, both lines changed front, and Duncan's battery broke an attack on the U.S. left. Both armies held the field at dark; Arista withdrew next morning to Resaca de la Palma, where he was defeated on 9 May. Maj. Samuel Ringgold was mortally wounded. The battlefield is preserved as Palo Alto Battlefield National Historical Park.

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Major Ringgold mortally wounded
Major Ringgold mortally wounded — Edward Williams Clay, 1846 (Library of Congress) — public domain

The battle, stage by stage

  1. 7–8 May 1846, morning

    The march from Point Isabel

    Since 3 May Mexican guns have bombarded Fort Texas, the earthwork Brig. Gen. Zachary Taylor built opposite Matamoros, while Taylor took his Army of Occupation back to secure its supply depot at Point Isabel, on the coast. On the evening of 7 May Taylor starts back with his army and a long supply train, camps about seven miles out, and marches on next morning; he reports 177 officers and 2,111 men (2,288 in all). Gen. Mariano Arista, north of the river with the Army of the North since 1 May, marches onto the prairie of Palo Alto early on 8 May to block him where the road passes a water hole. Taylor's advanced cavalry reach the water about noon (Taylor; the Mexican officer Jean Louis Berlandier says 2 PM) and find the Mexican army across the road.

  2. 8 May 1846, about 1 PM

    Two lines on the prairie

    Taylor halts at the Palo Alto pond, rests his men, lets them fill canteens, and forms line: on the right, under Col. David Twiggs, the 5th Infantry, Ringgold's battery, the 3rd Infantry, two 18-pounder siege guns and the 4th Infantry; on the left, under Lt. Col. William Belknap, Childs' artillery battalion (serving as infantry), Duncan's battery and the 8th Infantry. The wagons park near the water, guarded by Ker's dragoons. About three-quarters of a mile south, Arista's line runs well over a mile across the prairie: Gen. Anastasio Torrejón's cavalry astride the road, then the infantry battalions with their guns, light cavalry on the right by low rises called the motitas. Arista reported 3,461 men and 365 officers in line (NPS: about 3,200 to 3,500); Taylor believed he faced 6,000. Marshy ground, pools and shoulder-high cordgrass lie between them.

  3. About 2 to 3 PM

    The artillery duel

    Taylor's columns advance to about 700 yards, and the Mexican guns open first. Taylor deploys into line and sends his artillery forward. The Mexican pieces, 4- and 8-pounders firing mostly solid shot with weak powder, often fall short and roll through the grass slowly enough, Grant recalled, that men could open ranks and let them pass. The U.S. 'flying artillery', Maj. Samuel Ringgold's and Capt. James Duncan's light 6-pounder batteries, unlimbers about 100 yards ahead of the infantry, while Lt. William Churchill's two 18-pounders, drawn by oxen, fire shell and spherical case at the Mexican line. The Mexican infantry takes heavy losses standing in line; Taylor later wrote that their steadiness under this fire was 'a theme of universal remark and admiration'. The 8th Infantry forms square to cover the left.

  4. About 3 to 4 PM

    Torrejón's lancers and the 5th Infantry's square

    After about an hour of this, Arista sends Torrejón with some 800 to 1,000 lancers (about 800 by Lt. Napoleon Dana's account, about 1,000 by Haecker's) and two guns through the chaparral and marsh west of the road to turn the U.S. right and reach the wagons. The marshy ground and a winding resaca slow them. The 5th Infantry moves about 500 yards to its right and front and forms square, and its volleys turn back the charge; Lt. Randolph Ridgely's section of Ringgold's battery and Walker's Texas Rangers help drive the lancers off. The 3rd Infantry is sent further right toward the train and also forms square. Accounts disagree on how many charges were made.

  5. About 4 PM

    Prairie fire and a change of front

    Burning wadding sets the dry cordgrass alight, and a wall of smoke drifts between the armies; the firing stops for nearly an hour. Taylor uses the lull to bring up ammunition and move the 18-pounders forward along the road, with the 5th Infantry on the extreme right. Arista, his left driven back, swings his line to match: both lines turn counterclockwise, the Mexican right moving forward about 400 yards, and the U.S. line comes to face roughly east, near the road. The size of the turn is uncertain: about 35 degrees on Berlandier's sketches, more than 75 degrees (almost north-south) on the U.S. maps; it is drawn here at about 50 degrees. Archeologists found a band of U.S. lead balls, spherical case and 6-pounder canister along part of the later Mexican line.

  6. About 5 PM

    Ringgold falls

    When the smoke clears the guns open again. A Mexican 4-pounder shot hits Major Ringgold, the leading advocate of the U.S. light artillery, in both legs as he directs his battery; he is carried off alive and dies of the wound a few days later at Point Isabel. Capt. Charles May's dragoon squadron tries a diversion against the Mexican left but pulls back on meeting Torrejón's massed cavalry, and the 4th Infantry suffers under fire while supporting the 18-pounders. Torrejón's cavalry charges toward the 18-pounders and Childs' battalion, brought up to support them, which forms square: Churchill's canister breaks one charge, then a volley from the square ends the attack.

  7. About 5 to 7 PM

    Duncan's battery breaks the Mexican right

    Arista's right, Montero's light cavalry backed by infantry, advances to turn the U.S. left and reach the wagons. Duncan takes his battery through the smoke to the far left and unlimbers off the end of the Mexican right, by the accounts within 200 to 300 yards, firing along its line. Supported by the 8th Infantry and Ker's dragoons, his guns drive the attack back; archeologists found Mexican cannonballs clustered where his battery is believed to have stood. With darkness and his artillery ammunition running low, Arista pulls back toward the chaparral at the southern edge of the field. Taylor's army bivouacs where it stands.

  8. 9 May 1846

    To Resaca de la Palma

    Arista declines a second day on the open prairie. After trying to bury his dead overnight (many were left on the field; a U.S. surgeon counted about 150) he marches early on 9 May about five miles south to Resaca de la Palma, a brush-lined former river channel across the road. Taylor fortifies his wagons by the pond with two 18-pounders and two 12-pounder howitzers, then follows; the armies fight again there that afternoon. U.S. losses at Palo Alto were 9 killed, 44 wounded and 2 missing (Taylor; NPS). Mexican losses were 102 killed, 129 wounded and 26 missing (NPS); other Mexican figures run to about 250 killed (Haecker), Taylor claimed at least 200 killed and 400 wounded, and Lt. George Meade estimated about 400.

Forces

About 3,200 to 3,800 Mexican troops faced about 2,300 Americans, but the Americans had the better artillery. Army totals are fairly secure; Taylor's claim of 6,000 Mexicans was an overestimate, and only a few unit figures survive.

Mexican Army of the North (Arista, Torrejón)

In the battle lineArista testified to 3,461 enlisted men and 365 officers on the line, which may or may not include Canales' irregulars; a contemporary Mexican account gives about 3,000 (Haecker). The NPS gives about 3,200 and about 3,500; Taylor reported 'not less than 6,000 regulars'. Charles M. Haecker, A Thunder of Cannon (NPS, 1994), ch. 3; National Park Service, Palo Alto Battlefield; Zachary Taylor's report, 16 May 1846about 3,800 (about 3,000–3,826)
GunsHaecker: at least 12 cannon, 4- and 8-pounders; Taylor reported 10 guns. Charles M. Haecker, A Thunder of Cannon (NPS, 1994), ch. 4; Zachary Taylor's report, 16 May 1846at least 12 (10–12+)

U.S. Army of Occupation (Taylor)

EngagedTaylor reported 177 officers and 2,111 men, 2,288 in all; Haecker gives 2,228; NPS pages give about 2,300 and about 2,500. Zachary Taylor's report, 16 May 1846; Charles M. Haecker, A Thunder of Cannon (NPS, 1994), ch. 3; National Park Service, U.S. Battle Line2,288 (2,228–2,500)
GunsRinggold's and Duncan's batteries of 6-pounders, and two cast-iron 18-pounders drawn by oxen (Haecker). Charles M. Haecker, A Thunder of Cannon (NPS, 1994), ch. 4two light batteries and two 18-pounders
Supply trainThe park wayside says about 300 wagons; the NPS battle page says 400. Three Hundred Supply Wagons wayside (HMdb 182255); National Park Service, Palo Alto Battlefieldsome 270 to 400 wagons

Casualties

U.S. losses were light, about 9 killed and 44 wounded, most to artillery fire. Mexican losses were much heavier but less certain: the official 102 killed, 129 wounded and 26 missing, against other figures of about 250 killed and U.S. estimates of 400 or more casualties. Certainty: fair.

Mexican Army of the North (Arista, Torrejón)

Killed102 killed is the figure the National Park Service gives (Arista's return); Haecker notes other Mexican figures of about 250 killed, and Taylor claimed at least 200. National Park Service, Palo Alto Battlefield; Charles M. Haecker, A Thunder of Cannon (NPS, 1994), ch. 3; Zachary Taylor's report, 16 May 1846102 (102 to about 250)
WoundedNPS figure; Taylor claimed at least 400 Mexican wounded, a figure he could not have counted. National Park Service, Palo Alto Battlefield; Zachary Taylor's report, 16 May 1846129
MissingNPS figure. National Park Service, Palo Alto Battlefield26
Casualties (U.S. estimate)Lt. George Meade's estimate after talking with captured Mexican officers (Haecker). A U.S. surgeon counted about 150 Mexican dead left unburied on the field the next day. Charles M. Haecker, A Thunder of Cannon (NPS, 1994), ch. 3about 400

U.S. Army of Occupation (Taylor)

KilledTaylor's report and the NPS give 9 killed; Haecker gives 5 killed on the day, with 2 officers and 8 men dying of wounds later. Zachary Taylor's report, 16 May 1846; National Park Service, Palo Alto Battlefield; Charles M. Haecker, A Thunder of Cannon (NPS, 1994), ch. 39 (5–9)
Wounded44 per Taylor and the NPS; 43 per Haecker. Maj. Samuel Ringgold was among the mortally wounded. Zachary Taylor's report, 16 May 1846; Charles M. Haecker, A Thunder of Cannon (NPS, 1994), ch. 344 (43–44)
MissingAll three sources agree. Zachary Taylor's report, 16 May 18462

Then and now: how the ground has changed

The core of the Palo Alto prairie is preserved in the national park and has not been built over, but it looks different: the cordgrass is shorter, mesquite and prickly pear have spread, the pond has been drained and Brownsville has grown up to the south. Fort Texas was mostly leveled for a levee, and the Resaca de la Palma field lies inside city streets.

The interactive map can show the period landscape (1 shape: Palo Alto pond (1846, approximate)) under the units. Open the map.

Weapons

Mexican Army of the North (Arista, Torrejón)

India Pattern "Brown Bess" musket

India Pattern "Brown Bess" musket

Flintlock smoothbore musket · 1797-1850s

At Palo Alto: The main Mexican infantry arm: surplus British .75-caliber India Pattern muskets, effective to about 100 yd (Haecker). The U.S. infantry was never close enough for them to matter much.

First made for the British East India Company, the India Pattern was a simpler, shorter Brown Bess that Britain adopted as its standard infantry musket during the French wars. It was produced in huge numbers, and surplus guns were supplied to allies and later sold abroad, including to Mexico. Rugged but inaccurate, it was meant for massed volleys at close range.

Caliber
.75 in
Barrel
39 in (990 mm)
Effective range
About 100 yards
Rate of fire
2-3 rounds per minute
Photo: Smithsonian Institution (NMAH) · Public domain
Baker rifle

Baker rifle

Flintlock rifle · 1801-1830s

At Palo Alto: Issued to the elite cazadores skirmishing in front of the Mexican line (Haecker).

The Baker was the British Army's first standard-issue rifle, carried by the green-jacketed 95th Rifles and the light battalions of the King's German Legion. Its rifled barrel let a trained marksman hit a man-sized target at ranges where muskets were little more than guesswork. Surplus Bakers were later sold abroad, and some ended up with Mexican light infantry.

Caliber
.625 in
Effective range
About 200 yards (aimed fire)
Rate of fire
Slower than a musket, roughly 1-2 per minute
Photo: Smithsonian Institution (NMAH) · Public domain
Napoleonic cavalry lance

Napoleonic cavalry lance

Polearm (cavalry) · c. 1800-1910s

At Palo Alto: Torrejón's lancers carried lances about 9 ft long in the charges against the 5th Infantry's square and the 18-pounders.

Polish lancers revived the lance in western Europe, and their success led France to convert several regiments into chevau-legers lanciers from 1811; Prussia, Austria and Russia fielded uhlans of their own. The long reach let a lancer strike swordsmen before they could reach him and stab infantry who had lost their formation. It was deadly in pursuit and fearsome against broken units.

Length
About 9 ft (2.7-2.9 m)
Use
Out-reaching swordsmen and spearing infantry or fallen men
Photo: Metropolitan Museum of Art · CC0
Mexican 4- and 8-pounder field guns

Mexican 4- and 8-pounder field guns

Smoothbore field artillery (bronze) · c. 1770s-1850s

At Palo Alto: Arista had at least 12 guns, 4- and 8-pounders, firing solid shot with poor powder; many rounds fell short and rolled through the grass.

Arista's artillery was older and lighter than Taylor's, mostly Spanish-era guns on French-style Gribeauval carriages. Haecker's archeology and the eyewitnesses agree that poor powder kept its solid shot from reaching the U.S. lines with full force: balls often fell short and rolled through the grass slowly enough to be dodged.

Carriage
Mostly Gribeauval pattern
Ammunition
Iron and copper solid shot; small copper anti-personnel balls
At Palo Alto
At least 12 guns (Haecker); Taylor counted 10
Photo: Djmaschek, CC BY-SA 4.0

U.S. Army of Occupation (Taylor)

U.S. Model 1816/1822 flintlock musket

U.S. Model 1816/1822 flintlock musket

Flintlock smoothbore musket · 1816-1840s

At Palo Alto: Probably the standard U.S. infantry musket at Palo Alto (Haecker); the squares of the 5th Infantry and Childs' battalion broke the lancers with volleys.

Made at Springfield and Harpers Ferry in great numbers, the Model 1816 (and its 1822 variant) was still the standard arm of the U.S. regular infantry in 1846, before percussion Model 1842 muskets reached the field armies. Haecker judges it the probable infantry arm at Palo Alto, perhaps alongside some Model 1835s.

Caliber
.69 in
Ignition
Flintlock
Effective range
About 100 yards
Photo: Smithsonian Institution (a later percussion conversion), public domain
M1841 6-pounder Field Gun

M1841 6-pounder Field Gun

Smoothbore field gun (bronze) · 1841-1868 (Civil War use mainly 1861-1863)

At Palo Alto: Ringgold's and Duncan's 'flying artillery' batteries of bronze 6-pounders did most of the fighting, moving ahead of the infantry and, in Duncan's case, to the end of the Mexican line.

The standard U.S. light field gun of the Mexican War, the bronze 6-pounder was already outdated by 1861 but filled batteries on both sides early in the Civil War. The Union phased it out first in the East, replacing it with Napoleons and rifled guns, while the Confederacy and Western armies kept using it longer. In early 1863 Lee had his army's 6-pounders melted down and recast as Napoleons.

Caliber
3.67 in
Range
About 1,500 yd (round shot at 5°)
Shot
Round shot, case, canister (effective to ~350 yd)
Crew
9
Photo: DrStew82 · CC BY-SA 4.0
Canister Shot

Canister Shot

Close-range artillery ammunition · Used throughout the Civil War

At Palo Alto: Canister from the 18-pounders and the 6-pounders broke the cavalry charges; archeologists found canister concentrations between the lines.

Canister turned a cannon into a giant shotgun: the tin can split open at the muzzle and sprayed iron balls across the front. In emergencies gunners loaded double or even triple canister. It was the deadliest round in a battery's limber chest whenever infantry charged the guns.

Contents
A tin can packed with iron balls (27 in a 12-pounder round)
Range
Most effective inside about 400 yd
Use
Against infantry and cavalry at close range
Photo: Minnesota Historical Society · CC BY-SA 3.0

Paintings and photographs

Major Ringgold mortally wounded
Major Ringgold mortally wounded Edward Williams Clay's 1846 lithograph of Maj. Samuel Ringgold struck down at Palo Alto (Library of Congress). Edward Williams Clay, 1846 (Library of Congress) — public domain · source
Palo Alto battlefield today
Palo Alto battlefield today The coastal prairie of Palo Alto Battlefield National Historical Park. Pi3.124 — CC BY-SA 3.0 · source
Palo Alto Battlefield NHP
Palo Alto Battlefield NHP Palo Alto Battlefield National Historical Park. National Park Service — public domain · source

Free for everyone every year on its anniversary: May 8.

Accuracy score: 65/100 (moderate)

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Sources and method

Palo Alto, 8 May 1846. No U.S. Army staff ride handbook covers this battle. The order of battle, distances and timings follow, as the key source, Charles M. Haecker, A Thunder of Cannon: Archeology of the Mexican-American War Battlefield of Palo Alto (National Park Service, Southwest Cultural Resources Center Professional Papers No. 52, 1994), chapters 3, 4, 5, 7 and 8, the survey report behind Haecker and Jeffrey G. Mauck, On the Prairie of Palo Alto: Historical Archaeology of the U.S.-Mexican War Battlefield (Texas A&M University Press, 1997). Primary source: Zachary Taylor's report of 16 May 1846 (Descendants of Mexican War Veterans transcription). Park interpretation: National Park Service, Palo Alto Battlefield, Battlefield Overlook, Mexican Battle Line and U.S. Battle Line; park waysides and markers from the Historical Marker Database (Chosen Ground, Cavalry Charge, Three Hundred Supply Wagons, A natural fortress, Resaca de la Palma, Fort Brown, Site of Fort Polk). Ulysses S. Grant, Personal Memoirs, chapter 7 (part 1, part 2), and the NPS Dodging Cannonballs wayside. The overlook, the battle-line trails and the old road trace are fixed by the park; the survey areas of the archeology (pond, resaca, marsh, Arista Hill) are not published with coordinates and are placed approximately from the descriptions. Unit traces are reconstructions, especially after the change of front, where Mexican and U.S. period maps disagree by 35 to 75 degrees. The road between the field, Point Isabel and Fort Texas is drawn schematically. Strengths and losses are given as each side reported them.

Where the positions come from

Further reading